Table of contents:
- Introduction: contextual framework
- Developing
- Emergence of new theories
- The role of technology in psychology
- Alternatives to research in cognitive psychology
- Conclusions
By Prof. Andrés García Azcanio. March 9, 2018
Since its introduction in Psychology, by the North American psycholinguist Noam Chomsky (1), the term competences has probably been one of the most used in recent years in the area of Psychology. This is because in all areas where psychologists are inserted, human development is promoted. As a consequence, theories of all kinds have been derived in this regard and different applications and uses can be found for this concept. If you are interested in knowing more about the Relationship between Cognitive Psychology and Applied Psychology, we invite you to read this article from PsicologíaOnline.
You may also be interested in: What is cognitive psychology: history and authors Index- Introduction: contextual framework
- Developing
- Emergence of new theories
- The role of technology in psychology
- Alternatives to research in cognitive psychology
- Conclusions
Introduction: contextual framework
Since its introduction in Psychology, by the North American psycholinguist Noam Chomsky (1), the term competences has probably been one of the most used in recent years in the area of Psychology. This is because in all areas where psychologists are inserted, human development is promoted. As a consequence, theories of all kinds have been derived in this regard and different applications and uses can be found for this concept.
These applications have been used to study both language and thought phenomena, as well as to predict success in a job in a company, or, in general, in life.
However, despite the fact that this notion has a clear origin and follows a line of advance within Cognitive Psychology, it has taken another path in the field of Business and Management Psychology, based on the work of McClelland (2) and his studies on labor competencies.
For a long time there has been a kind of divorce in psychology between theories that arise from scientific research and theories that arise as a result of professional practice. This division has occurred due to the fact that research in Cognitive Psychology was carried out taking the form of construction of scientific knowledge typical of the positivist paradigm. This form of research was based on isolating an element in such a way that it remained pure, stable and repeatable, causing practically these investigations to have no use of practical value, except for exceptions, which could use fields of applied Psychology such as Organizational Psychology.
That is why Organizational Psychology was doomed to develop in parallel to the research in Cognitive Psychology the same concepts that had been introduced by the latter, since research in the field of General Psychology, by isolating both the components, prevented an approach to the subject from a holistic point of view, and did not allow a real vision of all the factors that intervene when a worker performs a certain task (García Azcanio, 2003).
According to García Azcanio (2005, 2006a), in recent years cognitive psychologists have turned the direction of their research, and instead of experimentally reproducing phenomena, they study cognitive processes in natural situations. This makes it possible for there to be a rapprochement between the theorists of General Psychology and those of Business Psychology, a fact that a few years ago was unlikely due to the level of research in General Psychology that reduced the possibility of their application to different fields.
At present, and due to the complexity that field investigations are taking, it is of vital importance that the findings that have been obtained are integrated,recently, within the framework of General Psychology with the conceptions that may arise from studies in professional action. This for various reasons. First, it allows enriching the theoretical framework with which professional action is assumed. Second, it gives this professional action methodological tools with which to deal with daily practice. Third, it allows research in General Psychology to have a practical outlet through which feedback can be obtained that makes it possible to enrich and improve said research. And finally, it allows General Psychology a more natural approach in the study of human beings (García Azcanio, 2006b).
This work aims to expose the situation of the research paradigm of human cognition in the current scientific-social context. To do this, the approaches made by some specialists are reviewed and some points of view are outlined in this regard, focusing on the causes that have forced the transition from "laboratory study" to "study in natural conditions", taking as reference studies about human capabilities.
Developing
The eagerness to unravel and understand the human mind is not new. She is associated with the history of humanity. Philosophers such as Aristotle, Hume, Locke, Descartes, Kant, etc., have made their contributions to the subject, and their notions still survive in our culture.
This study has reached our present time and cognitive process scientists face a task that is as difficult as it is interesting, since these phenomena are inaccessible to public observation, are very fast and interact with each other in such a way that it is difficult to study an isolated phenomenon as there is a functional dependence of all the components of the system (De Vega, 1994).
This is one of the reasons why Behaviorism (3) named the brain as "the black box" and limited itself to studying the external manifestations of the human psyche: behavior.
Despite the roots of this paradigm, there were numerous researchers who were not satisfied with the results obtained and tried to delve into the studies “prohibited” up to that moment. Thus, the development of computer science swept, once and for all, the veil that existed over the misnamed “black box”, and since then what is known today as the Information Processing Approach emerged. (EPI).
Numerous theories flowed with the intention of explaining phenomena ranging from word recall to the problem solving process. All of them with a common characteristic: an attempt was made to isolate each of the processes to be studied in order to obtain results that were accepted according to the way of doing science proper to Positivism. Thus, the computer was used for programming that would allow modeling the human mind. This is known as the mind-computer analogy, in which it was proposed that the human mind simulated the information processing carried out by a computer when solving problems.
Emergence of new theories
In this context arises the theory of Generative and Transformational Grammar (Chomsky (4), 1971, 1981), in which he introduces the term competence-performance. In this way, Chomsky (1971) defines linguistic competence as an intrinsic tacit knowledge, which is obtained incidentally and not by formal learning, that the speaker-listener possesses about the language. This can be ideally expressed by a system of rules that relates phonetic representations with their semantic interpretations, that is, by a grammar. For its part, acting (or performance) refers to the use made by the speaker-listener of language in specific situations. The performance provides the data for the competition investigation.
This concept has been applied within cognitive psychology in multiple ways, and there are what Miller (1975) calls different versions (5) of the distinction between competence and performance. They are:
- language version,
- cognitive version,
- rationalist version,
- developer or developer version,
- situational version,
- critical version,
- methodological version,
- standalone version.
Although these versions differ in the way they operationalize the term, they coincide in the ways of investigating the phenomenon they study. Thus, the search for knowledge in scientific research was characterized by the assembly of experiments where the individual is located in an environment "suitable" for study, but which is far from the reality in which it is inserted in their daily life.
An answer to why the study of cognitive processes was “denatured” in the decades from 70 to 80 can be found in the proposals of Miller (1974), according to which there are two development periods of a science. A first period, in which the scientific activity that begins to form, uses elements and ideas that are part of the common experience of all human beings. During this period, science is widely intelligible, that is, it is accessible even to lay people.
In a second period, this science will become more precise, reach a deeper understanding, or soar to greater heights of intellectual virtuosity. At this stage, science will lose the impact on the vision that the average man has of himself and the world that surrounds him, it will have ceased to be a living reality, except for a small group of specialists. (Miller, 1974).
Cognitive psychology did not escape those two moments pointed out by Miller. During its birth as a paradigm it was accessible to many people. In fact, researchers from different fields were incorporated, who were given the task of trying to explain the processes that underlie human behavior and its consequences.
But it happens that these investigations were directed by a conception of science that made use of the positivist method of experimentation, systems were divided into smaller and smaller elements and studied with an esoteric specialism. In this paradigm, it was about minimizing uncertainty and risks, and location in time and place and the process are irrelevant to explanations. An example of this is that cognition was studied separate from the individual's personality.
Thus, his objective was to take an element isolated from nature that was preserved artificially pure, stable and reproducible, to carry out experiments with it. Thus, in a supercontrolled laboratory environment, the properties of this element could be determined.
Then, cognitive psychology reached the second stage, where research and its results were seen, at the same time as refined, restricted to an elite of researchers who specialized in the subject.
That is why the notion of competition-performance, although he is clear about his origin and follows a line of advance within cognitive psychology, he took another path in the field of business and management psychology. This is due to the importance of the study of human capabilities today, in a world where technology no longer seems to make much of a difference in the market, this difference being a result of the level of performance and training of individuals who work in that organization.
It is curious that there has been an extrapolation of concepts from the area of general psychology to applied psychology, in this case business psychology, without following the development that these terms have had in their field of origin. That is, approaches and concepts related to competence have been developed, as well as study methods that have been instrumented, which do not take as a reference the multiple investigations that have been developed today in the field of cognitive psychology about this theme.
Psychology applied to organizations is a technological resource that many individuals whose professions may or may not be related to psychology, such as managers, businessmen, directors, consultants, economists, accountants, engineers, etc. These individuals need knowledge of psychology that can be easily applied and incidentally that can be made known to the average worker for use, in order to increase the productivity and competitiveness of the company.
From this point of view, the level reached by cognitive psychology had very little to offer, since its research was so divorced from reality that it offered few methodological resources to business psychology professionals. In fact, it is unlikely that any book on cognitive psychology will become a best-seller, due to these same issues of not being able to “land” the content for an average reader, restricting its reading only to specialists on the subject.
The role of technology in psychology
This also includes the participation of people, and technically trained researchers on a topic. All of these stakeholders form an expanded peer community for an effective global environmental risk problem solving strategy. Said community of peers, or people involved in the process, is also expanding as the problem approaches post-normal science.
According to these authors, post- normal science occurs when uncertainties are epistemological or ethical, or when risks reflect contradictory goals between peers. In this sense, it is called post-normal, to indicate that the exercises of solving puzzles and isolating the elements of nature in a laboratory in order to study them, are no longer appropriate to solve the problems of risk and environmental policies. (Funtowicz and Ravetz, S / A).
This new way of doing science is present above all in the social sciences (including psychology), and in the studies of Science, Technology and Society (CTS), where it is necessary to have a more humanistic perspective, more focused on the man, as he unfolds in his daily environment. (Núñez Jover, 2001; López Cerezo, 2001).
Thus, technology depends more and more on scientific development and the limits between these become less and less clear. It is thus stated that the "new science" is, by its essence, technological. This must have a historical-social focus, differentiated from the positivist tradition, and have an expression in the practical sphere, for example: in industry, in services, etc. (Núñez Jover, 1994, 1999a).
Miller (1974), states that scientific achievements tend to affect on two levels. On the one hand, they serve as the basis for the development of technology and the practical problems that people face in their daily lives can be solved with relative ease. On the other hand, they shape the vision of reality, by altering the way in which the world in which we live is understood. In this way, technology must be based on scientific development, and, at the same time, science be at the service of technology, thus allowing the development of humanity.
For Pimentel Ramos (1994) science and technology have a position of relative dependence with respect to social conditions, which determine their current position and evolution. The “new science” is inserted in that context where new practical and cultural demands are expressed (Núñez Jover, 1999b).
In Cuba today there is a key example when the entire process of universalization of education is analyzed, where a good part of scientific knowledge, its transmission, prioritized studies and the technologies that are developed, are based on it. All this, the product of a state policy from which the historical-social conditions are created for it.
At present, studies in psychology have evolved, product of the dominant paradigm shift in science,and they undertake to study the individual in their natural environment. Within this new conception of scientific research, new cognitivist currents have emerged and existing ones have been reformulated and renewed. In this way, researchers such as Gardner (1997, 1999), Sternberg (1997, 1999, 2001) and Goleman (1996, 1999), carry out their research on human competencies with a less arbitrary, artificial, and more natural conception, achieving considerable Results and their concepts are developed in the light of new technological discoveries in the framework of neuropsychology and by new cross-cultural studies that they themselves call essential to understand the phenomenon studied.
Today, in cognitive psychology, the importance of culture in the formation of the individual and in the enhancement of their capacities is not denied. There are, therefore, cross-cultural studies, among others, in which the human being is located in its natural environment, and a highly effective predictive capacity of behavior is achieved. It is a fact that researchers in the field of general psychology are no longer interested only in pure knowledge, but they seek to give this knowledge a practical way out to solve problems in everyday life.
These advances in the framework of cognitive psychology have not been sufficiently explored by psychologists or, more generally, managers who are dedicated to improving the performance capacity of individuals in organizations. Today, the competence-performance duo is used, as developed by McClelland (1973) within the framework of business psychology, and the progress that has taken place on this subject within cognitivist researchers is left out, with the exception of Goleman's (1996, 1999) approaches to emotional intelligence in organizations.
In addition, following Miller (1974), technology and applied psychology should use the advances that are produced in general psychology research. In the same way, general psychology must also provide findings that can be used by technology for its development. That is why the idea is shared that there must be a close relationship between science, technology and applied sciences to mutually enhance each other. That is, not only does science provide elements that allow the development of technology and applied science, even science itself benefits from the data provided by applied science, not only to verify, but also to polish its postulates.
Furthermore, as this is a time where knowledge about the potentialities of the human being is of vital importance for development, all the conceptions that study it must be taken into account (García Azcanio, 2006b). This would allow enriching the theoretical framework that works with the individual and their development, and provides a solid base that allows improving the methodological principles to study it in the not too distant future.
When studying the work of authors such as Vygotsky (1979) and Bruner (7), it necessarily follows from it that the success criteria are cultural elements, thus it is impossible to draw up lists of success criteria that are useful and applicable in different cultures. Following this idea, conceiving man as a social being has important implications, since it implies that studying man cannot be separated from the characteristics of the culture where he is inserted.
The holistic study of the human being in its insertion in different areas in which it interacts in its daily life, in a specific historical-social context, allows a true approach to the understanding of human cognition. This "humanizes" practices in processes such as personnel selection and training in the business world, since the greater the knowledge about the human component in a company, the more appropriate will be the demands imposed on it and the better Results will be obtained in enhancing their development.
In Cuba, for example, the selection of personnel that excludes people is not foreseen, although it can be implemented, and in fact it is carried out, but as a formalism, since there is a whole system of social values and a whole conception of the human being and its priority, which enables the emphasis to fall more on developing human beings than on using them solely as a source of profit. This last type of system, despite being efficient in a capitalist society, would not be successful in ours.
Another example of how linked scientific thought is to the historical-socio-political conditions of a country is in Cuban society where the integral development of man is prioritized and research is directed in this sense. Thus, when R&D is put into practice in an organization, or training is promoted, it will depend on the individuals who are involved and their potential to be stimulated.
In the case of a capitalist society, all these investigations are put into practice according to the organization, in this way, when it comes to managing the man in the company, the important thing is not the man himself, but the product of man is derived and the gains that this implies.
In this sense, one must be attentive to the transfer of this type of business management models from one company to another. You definitely have to be careful with the concepts you work on, since the Cuban culture and social system have peculiarities that differ significantly from the systems where this type of management is studied and implemented, which come from capitalist societies. This is one of the reasons why some Cuban companies do not have the success that is expected of them, since they copy models without carrying out the pertinent studies.
For this reason, the scientific study, in Cuba, in natural conditions where it allows to see the subject without independence from the society in which it is inserted, enables, first, that the results obtained are adapted to the reality that the individual lives; second, that the technology that emerges from the research is used more effectively. Finally, it favors the obtaining of a greater development of both the individual and the society in which it is inserted, based on the dialectical relationship that exists between the individual and society.
In summary, with this approach between different fields, not only is the area of applied psychology enhanced with the studies of general psychology , but it can also be found in business psychology, material that allows a better development of the theoretical conceptions raised by cognitive psychology. It is precisely the scientific approach in areas such as that of an organization, which offers that most natural vision of the human being.
Alternatives to research in cognitive psychology
Furthermore, research in cognitive psychology faced a second problem. As the investigations were carried out taking the form of construction of scientific knowledge typical of the positivist paradigm, the form of investigation lay in isolating an element in such a way that it remained pure, stable and repeatable, practically these investigations had no use of practical value, With some exceptions, they could use fields of applied psychology such as organizational psychology.
Sternberg (1986) recognizes that, despite the differences in approaching the study of human capabilities within cognitive psychology, these very differences are reduced to a negligible value when the different types of tasks proposed in an investigation are compared with those of daily tasks that the common man must perform, since there is a very big difference between these two types of activities.
According to Norman (1989) (6), a component of pure cognition can be described, but the human being is more than that, it is an organism with a biological base and an evolutionary and cultural history, it is a social being that interacts with others, with the environment and with himself. Central discussions of cognitive science have ignored these aspects of behavior. The results indicate that there has been considerable progress in some respects but great sterility in others.
This way of conceiving scientific knowledge manages to make nature predictable and controllable, but this is up to a certain limit, once the object is placed back in its natural environment the chances of prediction decrease drastically. That is, the richness of real life cannot be captured by the studies proposed by cognitive psychology.
For this reason, organizational psychology developed, in parallel with the research in cognitive psychology, concepts that had been introduced by the latter, to achieve an approach to the subject from a holistic point of view, and allow a real vision of all the factors that intervene when a worker performs a certain task, since research in the field of general psychology, by isolating both the components, prevented it.
In this sense, business psychology, as a result of the abstract level at which research moved within the framework of general psychology and due to the little practical utility of said applications, was dedicated to conducting more concrete studies that located the individual in their environment natural, and the purpose of these investigations is, fundamentally, to solve problems in the practice of companies and to provide methodologies for this, based on a conceptualization, which, although it gave these investigations a theoretical character, does not attempt to constitute a theory that will beyond its practical utilities.
In this sense, while scientific investigations of human cognition were dedicated to atomizing the phenomena of daily life, in the business field psychologists studied the human being, in his interaction with other humans, in an inserted organizational environment, in a context determined socio-cultural.
However, at present, as a result of the problems of divorce from reality and of little practical utility that have been presented by studies of human cognition, cognitivist theories have changed their way of studying cognitive processes.
An explanation to the question can be found in the framework of epistemology and in the past and current way of conceiving science and scientific research, taking into account that there has been a dominant paradigm shift in the approach to science.
To address this, reference should be made to the work Kuhn (1962) and his notions of crisis, paradigm, normal period, scientific revolutions and discontinuous conception of the progress of science.
For this author, a paradigm is a disciplinary matrix that includes from beliefs and preconceptions, to prescriptions accepted by the scientific community (types of problems that arise, how they should be implemented, the theoretical models that are used, and their applications (De Vega, 1994).
According to the ideas of Kuhn (1962), science does not progress continuously and cumulatively. On the contrary, it is a discontinuous evolution punctuated by crises and revolutions. There is a period of normal science, in which a dominant paradigm is present, to which the different communities of scientists, specialists in different branches of science, are welcomed, and according to which all scientific investigations are guided and accumulated.
During these periods, findings that are difficult to explain are also accumulating, which are incorporated into the original paradigm, until their accumulation undermines the very essence of the paradigm in question. Then a period of crisis ensues, which is followed by a period of revolutionary science, where a new paradigm appears, which is gaining strength and adherents, until it is completely installed and a period of normal science again ensues. (Kuhn, 1962; De Vega, 1994).
This way of conceiving the development of science, although not the only one, has been one of the most used, and in our case it allows us to illustrate the movement that has taken place in recent years within the framework of the conception of scientific research, and in the relationship between science and technology, with the dominant paradigm shift from positivism to post-normal science.
Thus, Funtowicz and Ravetz (S / A), following the ideas previously raised by Kuhn (1962), argue that a period that they call post- normal science has emerged, which has passed to replace positivism as the dominant paradigm in the form of do science. In this new conception of scientific research, it is not a question of isolating the elements for study in a laboratory. On the contrary, an attempt is made to study the elements as they occur in real life.
According to this new conception of science, the interplay of system uncertainties and decision-making risks must be used. Systems uncertainty entails the principle that the problem is concerned with understanding or managing an inherently complex reality, and not with the discovery of a particular fact. The risk in the decisions includes the different costs, profits and values included in the subject through the different stakeholders. (Funtowicz and Ravetz, S / A).
In this way, Funtowicz and Ravetz (S / A), propose a diagram (figure 1) of strategies to solve problems, in whose axes they place the risk in decisions and the uncertainty of the systems, thus, it shows the interaction of the aspects epistemic (intensity of uncertainty) and axiological (intensity of risks in decisions). This diagram also represents basic and applied sciences, professional consultation and post-normal science, which are part of a continum and depending on the degree of intensity of uncertainty and / or risks of a given problem, it will fall in each of the 4 areas previously raised.
Conclusions
Through this work, it has been possible to appreciate the influence that the new conception of science and its relationship with technology has had on the evolution of human cognition research from the passage of a paradigm that promoted the "study from laboratory ”to another paradigm that enables“ study under natural conditions ”.
For this, reference is made to the two main problems that have prevented the connection between applied sciences and scientific research in general psychology: namely, the problems of divorce from reality and of little practical utility of research in cognitive psychology.
Thus, the product of a change in the conception of science, called "post-normal science" by authors such as Funtowicz and Ravetz (S / A) or "the new science" by authors such as Núñez Jover (1994) and Pimentel Ramos (1994), currently advocates a more humanistic view, more focused on man, as he develops in his daily environment.
From this it follows, firstly, that technology must be based on scientific development, and, at the same time, science be at the service of technology, thus allowing the development of humanity. Second, that science and technology have a position of relative dependence with respect to social conditions, which determine their current position and evolution.
As a result of the above, research in cognitive psychology has taken a turn and, at present, they study the human being in their natural environment in order to achieve a greater approach to understanding the phenomena of human cognition.
Finally, as this is a time where knowledge about the potentialities of the human being is of vital importance for Cuban society, and all the conceptions that study it must be taken into account. This allows enriching the theoretical framework that works on the individual and their development, and provides a solid base that makes it possible to improve the methodological principles for their study.
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References- Chomsky's notion of Competition-Performance can be reviewed in Chomsky, Noam (1981): “Current problems in linguistic theory and Theoretical issues of generative grammar”; Ed. XXI Century; Mexico; and in Chomsky, Noam (1971): "Aspects de la theorie syntaxique"; Éditions du Seuil; Paris.
- McClelland's notion about organizational competencies can be reviewed in McClelland, David C. (1973): “Testing for Competence rather than for Intelligence”; American Psychologist; January.
- Psychological paradigm that guided studies in psychology in the first half of the 20th century.
- North American linguist author of the theory of Generative and Transformational Grammar, with which he dealt a severe blow to behaviorism by explaining the process of language acquisition from cognitive processes.
- To delve into the subject see: Miller, George A. (1975): “Some comments on competence and performance”; in Aaronson, Doris and Rieber, Robert W. (1975): "Developmental psycholinguistics and communication disorders"; Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, volume 263; New York.
- Norman's criteria in this regard can be found in Norman, D. (1989): "Twelve problems for cognitive science"; in Poggioli, L. And Navarro, A. (1989): “Cognitive psychology. Development and prospects; McGraw-Hill; Mexico.
- Cited by García Azcanio, Andrés (2003): “Human Potential. The notion of Competences ”; Diploma work to opt for the degree of Bachelor of Psychology; Faculty of Psychology, University of Havana.
Original text
- Chomsky, Noam (1971): "Aspects de la theorie syntaxique"; Éditions du Seuil; Paris.
- Chomsky, Noam (1981): “Current Problems in Linguistic Theory and Theoretical Issues of Generative Grammar”; Ed. XXI Century; Mexico.
- De Vega, Manuel (1994): "Introduction to cognitive psychology"; Editorial Alliance; Madrid.
- Funtowicz, Silvio O. and Ravetz, Jerome R. (S / A): “The science of the post-normal era”; (I KNOW); (S / P).
- García Azcanio, Andrés (2003): “Human Potential. The notion of Competences ”; Diploma work to opt for the degree of Bachelor of Psychology; Faculty of Psychology, University of Havana.
- García Azcanio, Andrés (2005): "The current notion of Competences from Cognitive Psychology"; at http://www.monografias.com/trabajos24/nocion-competencias/nocion-competencias.shtml. (Revised September, 2005).
- García Azcanio, Andrés (2006a): “The notion of Competences. Contributions of Cognitive Psychology to Competency Management ”; at http://www.gestiopolis.com/canales7/rrhh/aportes-de-la-psicologia-cognitiva-a-la-gestion-por-competencias.htm. (Revised November, 2006).
- García Azcanio, Andrés (2006b): “From Cognitive Psychology to management by competencies in tourism companies” (Reflection); in Turistic Challenges Magazine (in edition); University of Matanzas "Camilo Cienfuegos"; ISSN: 1681-9713.
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- Goleman, Daniel (1996): “Emotional Intelligence. Why is it more important than IQ ”; Ed. Javier Vergara; Buenos Aires.
- Goleman, Daniel (1999): "Emotional Intelligence in the company"; Ed. Javier Vergara; Buenos Aires.
- Kuhn, TS (1962): "The Structure of scientific revolutions"; The University of Chicago Press.
- López Cerezo, José Antonio (2001): "Science, technology and society: the state of affairs in Europe and the United States"; at http://www.campus-oei.org. (Revised May, 2003).
- McClelland, David C. (1973): "Testing for Competence rather than for Intelligence"; American Psychologist; January.
- Miller, George A. (1974): "Introduction to Psychology"; Editorial Alliance; Madrid.
- Miller, George A. (197 <