Table of contents:
- Definition of HIV / AIDS
- AIDS as an epidemic
- Risk factor's
- Method
- Subjects
- Process
- Conclusions
- Discussion
- The scale
- Adaptation to Spanish of the Scale (Maldonado, AL and Castillo, L., 2001)
Rating: 4 (1 vote) 1 comment By * Maldonado Cervera, AL y Castillo, L. . March 6, 2018
The HIV / AIDS-65 Scale (Paniagua et al., 1994) is an instrument that can allow evaluating certain factors: knowledge, erroneous knowledge, self-efficacy, susceptibility, and positive and negative attitudes in the general population or in certain sectors of the population.
The adaptation to Spanish of the aforementioned scale is carried out through translation, expert review and transfer to a group of students from Granada. With these contributions, some modifications are made and a scale is built that we think can provide valuable information to design, modify or evaluate the effect of AIDS prevention programs. Studies with this Scale are required to confirm its usefulness in Spanish samples and its efficacy for the improvement of AIDS prevention programs.
In this PsicologíaOnline article, we will talk about the Adaptation to Spanish of the HIV / AIDS-65 Scale (Paniagua et al., 1994).
You may also be interested in: Adaptation to change according to psychology Index- Definition of HIV / AIDS
- AIDS as an epidemic
- Risk factor's
- Method
- Conclusions
- Discussion
- The scale
Definition of HIV / AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection is a viral disorder that progressively destroys white blood cells and causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) eventually causes the progressive deterioration of the body's immune system, allowing the development of opportunistic (unusual) infections and, especially in adults, of certain cancers. AIDS is the advanced stage of HIV infection. It would be characterized by the fulfillment of any of the following criteria: a) T4 lymphocytes below 200 / mm3 of blood or diagnosis of any of the so-called opportunistic diseases (eg: pneumonia, Kaposi's sarcoma…)
The transmission of HIV requires contact with bodily fluids that contain infected cells or virus particles; These fluids include blood, semen, vaginal secretions, brain and spinal cord fluid, and breast milk.HIV is also present in tears, urine, and saliva, but in minute concentrations. The two most direct ways of contracting HIV infection are: 1) having sex (through the anus, vagina or mouth) with an infected person without protection (latex condom) and, 2) sharing needles and syringes with an infected person. Also, an HIV-infected woman can pass the virus to her baby during pregnancy, delivery, or through breast milk. This way of transmitting HIV and the contact caused by sexual abuse are the ways in which children are usually infected. Some people have been infected by receiving infected blood transfusions, although this possibility has been greatly reduced since 1985,date when all donated blood began to be tested.
The two viruses that cause AIDS are HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more common in the Western Hemisphere, Europe, Asia, and Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa. HIV-2 is the main virus causing AIDS in West Africa, despite the fact that many people there are infected with the HIV-1 species.
AIDS as an epidemic
AIDS has reached epidemic proportions, with more than 500,000 cases and 300,000 deaths registered in the US and 146,000 cases and 67,000 deaths in Latin America, until October 1995. In Spain, until 1998, 60,000 cases and 33,000 deaths have been registered and estimates that more than one million people are infected in the United States. Africa is the most affected continent.
At the beginning of the AIDS epidemic, many affected had a rapid decline in their quality of life after their first hospitalization and often spent much of their time in hospital. With the development of new antiviral drugs and better methods to treat and prevent opportunistic infections, many infected maintain their physical and mental abilities for years after the diagnosis of AIDS has been confirmed. Consequently, it has become a treatable disease, although not yet curable.
Today, there has also been an investment in prevention. Programs to prevent the spread of HIV have focused primarily on educating the public about the transmission of the virus, in an attempt to change the behavior of those most at risk. Educational and motivational programs have been relatively successful because many find it difficult to change their addiction or sexual habits.
Freddy A. Paniagua and others point out that lack of knowledge and wrong knowledge are very important areas in the acquisition of AIDS. Other factors of great importance are attitudes, susceptibility and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1990; Catania, Kegeles, Coates, 1990; Coates, Stall, Catania, Kegeles, 1988; Conners et al., 1990). Some of these AIDS questionnaires have been developed for children and adolescents.
In a study by Paniagua et al. (1997), normal adolescents and adolescents who have been admitted to a psychiatric hospital are compared. These authors think that hospitalized adolescents may be at greater risk for HIV infection than normal adolescents for two reasons:
- Many adolescents admitted that in psychiatric patients the facilities to share risk behaviors is greater, even than in the case of healthy adolescents, runaways or delinquents and,
- Psychiatric disturbances dramatically influence AIDS-related risk behaviors. Adolescent inpatients have received little attention, complicating their knowledge, attitudes, self-efficacy and susceptibility in the context of HIV / AIDS.
A major risk for infection is the lack of knowledge about the acquisition and transmission of the virusAIDS. Previous studies have shown that although adolescents display a body of knowledge about AIDS, their misconceptions are relatively high. For example, in a study by DiClemente, Brown, Beausoleil, and Lodico (1993), 98.3% of adolescents in the rural sample and 92.9% of the San Francisco group correctly indicated that a person can get AIDS from sharing needles. However, only 47.3% and 41.8% of the rural group and that of San Francisco, respectively, indicated that it is not true that AIDS can be contracted from an insect bite. Paniagua et al. Found similar results in a literature review of 18 studies with a total of 156,549 adolescents.
Risk factor's
There are three additional psychological risk factors for HIV disease. These are a low sense of self-efficacy (eg: the feeling that one is minimizing the importance of the means to prevent the AIDS virus), a low sense of susceptibility (eg: the belief that one cannot acquire the HIV virus). AIDS) and negative attitudes towards the consequences of HIV-AIDS (Bandura, 1990).
Paniagua et al. Found that a substantial percentage of adolescents had positive attitudes towards HIV-AIDS outcomes. A percentage found themselves susceptible to contracting the AIDS virus. But these results have been collected among healthy adolescents, only three studies have emphasized the assessment of knowledge among psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents and have not assessed attitudes, self-efficacy, or susceptibility to contracting AIDS.
In the study by Paniagua et al. (1997) it was observed that the sample of hospitalized adolescents had less knowledge and more misunderstandings about HIV than the national sample. They also had more positive and less negative attitudes about the consequences of AIDS. Self-efficacy scores were similar in both samples. These results emphasize the importance of implementing preventive programs in adolescents with emotional disorders.
In another study by the same authors, adolescents hospitalized in psychiatric hospitals were compared by sex (Paniagua, O'Boyle and Wagner, 1997), in which it was observed that women demonstrated more knowledge about AIDS, had more positive attitudes and perceived more self-effective than men.
Paniagua, FA et al. (1994) carry out a study in which they analyze 352 items related to AIDS and from 18 studies carried out with children and adolescents between 10 and 21 years of age. Performing content analysis, they select those who present a percentage of agreement higher than 85%, using this criterion they identify 164 items related to AIDS. These items are integrated into five mutually exclusive groups and defined based on theoretical criteria: a) knowledge, b) erroneous knowledge, c) attitudes (positive and negative), d) perception of susceptibility, e) perception of self-efficacy. The authors consider that by selecting the items in this way and integrating them into the aforementioned groups, a comprehensive and uniform questionnaire is developed.This questionnaire can be used in the future by researchers and clinicians.
The HIV / AIDS-65 scale (Paniagua et al., 1994, 1997a, 1997b) is a shortened version of the HIV / AIDS 164 scale (Paniagua et al., 1994) that is proposed as a scale that could be adapted to the needs of clinical psychologists rather than researchers.
We consider that the theoretical constructs included in the scale are very important for designing prevention programs specifically directed at the deficit areas in this group (knowledge, attitudes, self-efficacy… etc.)
Another possible utility of the scale would be its use to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention or prevention program using the scale as a test-retest test, in this way the effectiveness of the program could be assessed and, in addition, in which specific areas it has occurred. change (attitudes, susceptibility…).
For these reasons, we believe that it may be relevant for Spanish clinicians and researchers to have an adaptation to Spanish of the aforementioned scale.
Method
Subjects
The Scale was passed on to a group of 68 subjects, university students of psychology, educational sciences and nursing, aged between 19 and 27 years, mean 23.7 years. 77% were women and 33% men.
Process
the adaptation procedure has included the following steps:
1- Realization of the adaptation into Spanish and its correction by Dr. D. Freddy Paniagua in 1998.
2- In 1999, Dr. José Luis Bimbela made a correction of the scale adaptation.
3- During the 99-2000 course, the scale is passed to the previously described sample, asking them to indicate suggestions regarding the items they consider unintelligible, doubtful… etc.
Conclusions
In our opinion, the HIV / AIDS-65 scale of Paniagua, F., et al. 1997 may have the following applications in our context:
- Assessment of knowledge and attitudes in social agents: teachers, social workers, doctors, psychologists, parents, etc. These groups of people are often in charge of educating about AIDS. For this reason, a prevention program in which these groups of people are used would have to know beforehand what knowledge and attitudes they have.
- The questionnaire could be used to obtain data from different groups eligible for a prevention program. The questionnaire could be passed on to groups of adolescents, workers, parents, inmates, people with a higher frequency of involvement in risky practices, etc. In this way, the existing needs in these groups of people would be analyzed in order to design a prevention program that acts directly on those needs (eg: increase knowledge, change attitudes, increase self-efficacy, etc.)
- The questionnaire can also be used to assess the effectiveness of a specific AIDS program. You can also learn about what factors this prevention program has been effective.
- Finally, we believe that the questionnaire could be used to study the relationship between the different factors. The following questions could be answered: Does increased knowledge about AIDS improve self-efficacy behaviors? Does increasing knowledge about AIDS increase positive attitudes and decrease negative ones?
If the usefulness of the questionnaire is confirmed to analyze the questions posed in the preceding lines, the instrument would be very useful to study most of the variables related to AIDS prevention. We believe that studies should be done using this scale to confirm its usefulness and improve the effectiveness of AIDS prevention programs.
Discussion
Many prevention programs limit themselves to increasing knowledge about AIDS by requesting a change in the subject's behavior. However, knowledge is not the only or even the most important factor in behavior modification.
In modifying a behavior, other variables are very important such as: knowledge, erroneous knowledge, positive attitudes, negative attitudes, self-efficacy, susceptibility, etc. The use of this questionnaire can help to design AIDS prevention programs and refine them so that the effect of these programs on behavior is increased.
The scale
Adaptation to Spanish of the Scale (Maldonado, AL and Castillo, L., 2001)
10 Part: Knowledge
Instructions:
Of the following items, some are true and others are false. Read each item and circle the letter that appears to the left of the answer that you consider correct.
3. Prostitutes are at risk of contracting the AIDS virus
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
4. You can find out if a person has AIDS just by looking at them.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
5. You can get AIDS by sharing syringes with someone who is addicted to drugs and has the disease.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
8. You can get AIDS from semen.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
9. People can reduce the likelihood of getting AIDS by not having sexual contacts.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
13. You can get AIDS by sharing knives, forks, and glasses.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
17. Men who have AIDS can infect women.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
20. AIDS is a life-threatening disease.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
22. If a person receives a blood transfusion infected with AIDS, they can contract the disease.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
24. Women who have AIDS can infect men.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
25. A person can reduce the probability of becoming infected with AIDS through sexual abstinence.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
26. All homosexuals have AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
30. You can get AIDS by touching or being around a person with AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
34. The AIDS virus can be transmitted through sexual intercourse between a man and a woman.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
35. All people with AIDS are homosexual.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
36. AIDS is not so serious, it is like having the flu.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
38. Stress can lead to AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
39. I can avoid getting AIDS by exercising regularly.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
41. It is possible for a person to contract the AIDS virus from contact with a public telephone.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
43. You can get the AIDS virus from contact with the rim of the toilet.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
46. You can get AIDS by being in a room with a person with AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
48. There is a medicine that prevents you from getting AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
50. You can get AIDS if you share clothes with an infected person.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
52. People with AIDS could get another disease due to AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
54. Non-lactating children of mothers with AIDS are at risk of contracting the disease.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
56. At the moment, AIDS has no cure.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
57. A person can be infected with the AIDS virus and have no symptoms of the disease.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
60. People can have the AIDS virus in their body and not be sick.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
61. People can get AIDS by shaking hands.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
65. AIDS is found only in men.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
68. AIDS can be spread by sharing personal items such as a comb or hairbrush.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
69. AIDS weakens the body's ability to fight infection.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
70. You can get AIDS through anal intercourse.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
75. You can get AIDS by drinking from a cup or glass that has been used by a person with AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
77. The AIDS virus can be transmitted by hugging another person.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
78. The AIDS virus can be transmitted between two men through sexual contact.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
80. Homosexuals are at risk of contracting the AIDS virus.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
82. Sneezing and coughing can transmit AIDS.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
87. You can get AIDS in the swimming pool.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
89. You can get AIDS from another person who is infected but has no symptoms.
a) True
b) False
c) I don't know
20 Part: Personal Opinions
Instructions
Through the following items you will be able to express your opinions on the different aspects of HIV / AIDS. Read each item carefully but without spending a lot of time. If you
you agree with the item check: ADe agreement @. If you do not agree with the item check:
I do not agree @. If you cannot express your opinion, check: I don't know / I can't answer @.
91. You can ask your sexual partner to use a condom.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
94. I would refuse to sit next to a person with AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
95. I am not a person with the possibility of contracting AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
102. I don't have to worry about getting AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
103. I will feel bad using the same toilet and locker that have been used by people with AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
106. Choosing the type of condom to buy causes me confusion.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
111. I can buy condoms.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
112. It is important for students to learn about AIDS through family and individual education.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
113. I believe that anyone who injects drugs should get tested for AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
114. People with AIDS should be isolated for the safety of others.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
115. Too much time, money and other resources are being spent on AIDS compared to other diseases.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
116. I can ask my sexual partner if he or she has had sex with prostitutes.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
121. I think I can get AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
129. I can ask my sexual partner if he or she has had relationships with a bisexual person.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
136. I can bring condoms in case I decide to have sex.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
139. Intercourse is not so pleasant when using a condom.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
140. People with AIDS must be allowed to ride the bus.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
141. I am concerned about the possibility of contracting AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
146. Having to temporarily stop intercourse to put on a condom interrupts sexual pleasure.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
149. People with AIDS must be allowed to live in apartments.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
151. Students with AIDS must be allowed to attend school.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
153. I think it is very important to use a condom every time you have sex.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
155. It is difficult to find places to buy condoms.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
162. People with AIDS should be separated from the community (isolated).
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
164. I believe that it is only homosexuals who should be concerned about AIDS.
Uh ok
b) I do not agree
c) I don't know / I can't answer
How to score each of the items:
10 Part: Knowledge
20 Part: Personal Opinions
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Bibliography- Bandura, A. (1990 ). Perceived Self-EFfficacy in the Exercise of Control over AIDS Infection . In Medien Psychologie 1, pp. 23-43.
- Catania, JA; Kegeles, SM and Coates, TJ (1990 ). Toward an Understanding of Risk Behavior: An AIDS Risk Reduction Model (ARRM) . In Health Education Quarterly 17, pp. 53-72.
- Diclemente, RJ; Brown, LKBeausoleil, NI and Lodico, M. (1993). Comparison of AIDS Knowledge and HIV Related Sexual Risk Behavior Among Adolescents in Low and High AIDS Prevalence Communities. In Journal of Adolescent Health 14, pp. 231-236.
- Paniagua, FA; O'Boyle, MD and Wagner, KD (1997). Gender Differences on HIV / AIDS Related Issues Among Psychiatically Hospitalized Adolescents . In Journal of HIV / AIDS Prevention and Education for Adolescents and Children 1 (3-4), pp. 53-63.
- Paniagua, FA; O'Boyle, MD and Wagner, KD (1997). The Assessment of HIV / AIDS Knowledge, Attitudes, Self-Eficacy, and Susceptibility Among Psychiatrically Hospitalized Adolescents . In Journal of HIV / AIDS Prevention and Education for Adolescents and Children 1 (3-4), pp. 65-104.